Beybars (about 1217 / 18-1277) – al-Malikaz-ZaһirRukn-ad-din Beybars I al-Bunduktari al-Salih, Mameluk(military class of medieval Egypt, recruited from youth slaves of Turkic and Caucasian origin) the Sultan of Egypt and Syria (1260-1277) of Turkic (Kipchak) origin, a prominent military and statesman of medieval Egypt.
Biography
Although data on the political life of Baybars in Syria and Egypt were sufficient, information about his childhood and kind is very small. At the same time, data on Beibars can be found from the works of his contemporaries and medieval Arab authors, especially from the works of Muhammad bin Ali Ibrahim bin Shaddad al-Halabi (born 1286), “Syrah al-zahir Beibars” (“The Life of Zahir Beibars” “) and Mokhi addin Abdollah bin Abd al-Zahir bin Nishvan Al-Khazami Al-Masri (born 1292)” Arrauda az-zahir fi az-malik az-Zahir “(” The prominent garden of life al-alik az Zahira ”[1, p. 726].
Ibn Shaddad Ta was one of Baybars’s closest people, like Mohi ad-din Abd al-Zahir. It was this man who became the personal clerk of the Sultan who wrote the message of the Sultan to the Golden Horde ruler Berke Khan. And Abd al-Zahir was a palace clerk, with his hands under the strict control of the Sultan, a biography of Baybars was written. Due to the fact that he could not exceed the requirements of the Sultan, who did not want to leave information about childhood and the period of slavery in the history (Mamluk), the author avoided some important issues in his work.
However, Abd al-Zahir in the preamble of his book wrote only one line regarding this issue: “This is the Sultan, Malik al-Zahir Rukn ad-din Abu-l Fattah Beibars bin Abdullah al-Salih al-Nejmi, he was fortunate to come with the great Sultan Salih Nejmetdin Ayyub from Syria from the Turkic tribes “barls” [2].
Al-Makrizi also wrote in his work “As-Suluk”: “Baybars Turk. It was bought by Malik al-Salih Najmetdin Ayyub. “The 14th-century Egyptian author al-Aini in his work Ikdu al-juman fi tarihahl az-zaman (” The Pearl of the Population of Time “), referring to Baybars’s word” Min Burdjoglu Kabilyatun min Turk ” , says that the sultan from the Burj tribe. Al-Idrisi wrote that the Burj tribe inhabits the north of the Black Sea [1, p. 726].
In Russian chronicles of the XI-XII centuries. It is written among the Polovtsy (Kipchaks) were the descendants of the Burshevich. Kazakh researchers associate the name of the Burj tribe with the Berish tribe, which is part of the modern Kazakh people. The analysis of historical data indicates that at that time the berish clan lived in the Crimean region (at present, the berish in particular is settled in the Atyrau region) [3].
It is interesting that the symbol of the Berish tribe is an arrow, originally very similar to the symbol of the Arshakid dynasty of the Iranian-speaking tribe of the guy who inhabited the north of the Caspian [4, p. 34]. The Arshakid dynasty (250 BC – 227 AD) is known to be the dynasty that ruled Parthia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iberia and Caucasian Albania. At the beginning of our era and in the early Middle Ages, the upper Kuban, along with the Circassian-Adyge tribes, was inhabited by another Iranian-speaking tribe – the Sarmatian-Alans. From the beginning of the VI century, the Turks of the Western Turkic Kaganate began to enter this region [4, p. 35]. Soon the region passed into the hands of the kaganate and was part of several Turkic states that became heirs of the kaganate.
In Russian chronicles of the XI-XII centuries. It is written among the Polovtsy (Kipchaks) were the descendants of the Burshevich. Kazakh researchers associate the name of the Burj tribe with the Berish tribe, which is part of the modern Kazakh people. The analysis of historical data indicates that at that time the berish clan lived in the Crimean region (at present, the berish in particular is settled in the Atyrau region) [3].
It is interesting that the symbol of the Berish tribe is an arrow, originally very similar to the symbol of the Arshakid dynasty of the Iranian-speaking tribe of the guy who inhabited the north of the Caspian [4, p. 34]. The Arshakid dynasty (250 BC – 227 AD) is known to be the dynasty that ruled Parthia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iberia and Caucasian Albania. At the beginning of our era and in the early Middle Ages, the upper Kuban, along with the Circassian-Adyge tribes, was inhabited by another Iranian-speaking tribe – the Sarmatian-Alans. From the beginning of the VI century, the Turks of the Western Turkic Kaganate began to enter this region [4, p. 35]. Soon the region passed into the hands of the kaganate and was part of several Turkic states that became heirs of the kaganate.
The fate of the Uigurs, Kyrgyz, Turks, Oguzes, Pechenegs, Khazars, Karluks and Kimaks, who recreated the glory of the Hun Empire and the Turkic Haganate, was not reliable. However, the Turks, who inhabited a relatively large steppe zone, could not create their own states, at least temporarily. As a result of lengthy political events in a traditional settlement after the collapse of the Turkic Kaganate, various Turkic ethnic groups, seeking to create separate state structures, began to regroup. According to B. Kumekov, “the deepening and development of ethnic ties in Desht-i Kipchak influenced the formation of Kipchaks and the humiliation of ethnic and cultural features in the region. A single ethnic region, economic approach, social relations and a common language facilitated the communication of Kipchaks with other ethnic groups. Due to the increased political weight of the Kypchaks, many other ethnic groups and tribes called themselves “Kipchaks” and adopted this ethnonym ”[5, p. 45]. For this reason, the Berish clan had one marking with the Iranian land of the Arshakid ruler and this needs more in-depth research.
Baybars’ father is Zhamak, and his mother is Einek, the Berbensky Kipchak. According to some scholars of Egyptian history, it was bought as a child in the Desht and Kypchak steppes and accepted into a separate detachment of Sultan Salih Najim ad-Din from the Ayyubid dynasty. Initially, Baybars intended to sell himself to a merchant in Damascus for 800 dirhams. But he discovered a flaw in Baybars’ eyes and refused to buy it. Then it was acquired by the lord Aydakin Al-Bundukdari and, by tradition, the new Mamluk Beibarys Al-Bundukdari was named. Then Beybars, occupying the post of sultan, appointed the former owner of Al-Bundukdari ruler of Damascus [6, p. 102].
Strengthening of nomadic life, wars with neighboring states during this period caused the mass resettlement of the Türks in the habitable zone of the settled. In anticipation of the conquest of the territory of the settled peoples of Central Asia, nomads entered into various ethnic uprisings in their regions. They were subjected to mutual seizure due to the growing need for pastures and pastures of livestock, the weak were forced to cede their possessions to the rivals-winners, and herds of cattle were looking for new pastures and were occupied by relatively free land. In addition, in connection with the development of trade in nomads, competition for the possession of cities in the south caused the arrival of Turkic nomads in this region.
Thus, the Türks, who pushed the economic need, were forced to use the relatively empty territory of the settled, like cattle pastures.
At the end of the 11th century, the borders of the movement and the restrictions of the nomadic territory were clearly defined. Under such conditions, they were blinded by relatively deserted places in the south. Former owners of these lands did not easily give them to the Turks. However, the nomads in these clashes decided in favor of their political goals. An analysis of historical data shows that the increase in their need for livestock pastures and the desire for trade and economic relations with settled peoples, along with the political events taking place in Central Asia, facilitated the migration of Turks to relatively empty places, leaving their territories. The main goal of the Oguzes attack on Mavrennahr, Khorezm, Khorasan, Dzhurdzhan in the X century was not only the seizure of livestock pastures and prisoners, but also the pursuit of trade relations with the southern neighbors. According to B. Kumekov, “The transfer of Kimak tribes to the settled areas in the north of the Saman state arose by the need for trade relations with them” [5, p. 121].
Historical figures of Turkic origin had different ways to achieve a political career in other countries of the world, especially in Muslim countries.
According to medieval Arab studies, the Turks at that time also experienced a moral crisis. For example, in one of these facts about Karluks: “there are temples on the walls of which rulers are depicted. Karluks are spoiled; sins are not forbidden. While playing gambling, we placed bets on wives, and even on children ”[8, p. 96]. L. N. Gumilyov wrote about the crisis of religious ideology: “The decrease in the passionary energy of the population leads to decay – the last phase of the ethnic system. The morale of the people was weakened and did not want to fight. Prefer peace. The number of people who are not happy with this than people gathered near the ruler has increased. People became addicted to entertainment. Theft spread among the nomads, in battles they easily surrendered to the enemy for the sake of life” [9, p. 266].
Even the inscriptions of Kultegin say that “you wandered around all the Turkic countries. Wandering while surviving, ”it is obvious that they were hired soldiers of the Turks in neighboring countries.
Turkic tribes that survived not only political stagnation, but also a spiritual crisis, now of their own free will, sometimes as prisoners of war, were hired as slaves in neighboring states. As a result of the political clash, there were many Turkic slaves and slaves who were taken to other countries. In Islam, Turk men were used in military positions, women were kept as housekeepers. In medieval sources it is written that “Turkic girls are beautiful, tender, fair-faced. They are narrow-eyed, but charming. Most of average height. Few girls are tall. They give birth a lot. Children are born beautiful and riders. They are neat, they cook well. They tend to waste, but are not sure” [8, p. 96].
Nevertheless, the Turkic slaves, thanks to their natural fighting qualities, were more successful in military affairs than in the low positions inherent in slaves. In this regard, the Turks who initially held low positions, eventually participated in military affairs, and achieved a significant state career.
Nizam al-Mulk describes the military career of a Turkic slave in the Samanid palace: “For one year, he has been serving as a slave. At this time, he wore clothes made of Zendan fabric (the so-called mesnosti in Bukhara). A year later, in agreement with the Hadjib, the head of the tent (visak), the usual cap and the Turkic name are assigned. In the third year he received a special belt (karashor). And in the fifth year, the saddle was better, decorated with a stars bridle, received more expensive clothes and a baton. In the sixth year he received ceremonial clothes, in the seventh year the rank of “pashak bashi”, a black felt hood and ganja clothes decorated with silver symbolized the dignity of the pendant of a shoe. Gradually, he received the title of “hailbashi” (the head of the detachment) and reached the rank of “hajib” [8, p. 97]. On such a ladder of power, the Turks Aitak al-Khazari, who began his career as an assistant cook under caliph al-Mu’tasim, became the commander of the palace guard in Samara.
According to Al-Omari’s notes, the Turks who fled from the Kypchak steppe are distinguished by their conscientiousness, heroism, harmony and nobility. Many commanders of Turkic origin served in the caliphate army, like Afshin Bukh the Elder, his son Musa, Vasif, the younger Bukh, Salyk, Ibn Vasif, Muhammad ibn Bukh, Baikbek, Minkajavr al Fergani, Zerek. [8, p. 97]. The Turks, who achieved a high military career, sometimes tried to seize secular power in the hands of the Caliph. Already in the 9th century in Baghdad, the power of the Abbasids was limited to the Turkic commanders of the palace. Caliphs who showed weakness sometimes became a toy in their hands. “When Mustain sat on the throne (862), influential people called astronomers and asked:” Tell me! How long will this caliph live and how long will he rule? ” Then one jolly man standing there said: “I can better predict astronomers, rule as many as the Turks want” [8, p. 97]. From this information, one can realize the significance of the Türks in the caliphate.
Another Turkic slave, Muhammad ibn Abu Saj Saj Afshin, was the ruler of the caliphate in Azerbaijan and Armenia in 866-879. After he declared himself an independent ruler from the caliphate. Then his relative Yusuf continued the anti-Caliphist struggle, seizing power. In 919, the Saji were defeated in battles at the Ardebil Gate. Saji issued their gold, silver coins regardless of the caliphate [8, p. 97]. The state created in this way was the Ghaznavid state, the founder of which was the Turkic slave Sabuktegin.
Merits
Thus, the personal life and political activities of Baybars are closely connected with the political and social situation of that time in the Great Steppe, stretching from Altai to the Black Sea. In a comparative analysis of the data on the life of Baybars and the materials of medieval authors related to the topic, we see that a similar degree of personality was not achieved easily. Baybars, due to its fighting ability, was seen by other rulers. From the very beginning, he proved himself not just a slave, but a warrior.
Baybars grew up a very dexterous, nimble young man. In 1246, during feudal disputes, the Sultan al-Salih immediately noticed these properties, together with other Mamelukes, he took the Sultan from the Sultan and appointed him his own detachment as a sardar in one group. But after the death of Salih, his son Turan Shah and his heir Aybek began to trust the Mamelukes less.
At that time, Beibars was among the organizers of a conspiracy against the Turan Shah, who tried to get rid of the Mamelukes and was an accomplice in his murder. The new Sultan Mu’iaz ad-Din Aibek (1250-1257), having come to the throne, ordered to sentence the participants in the assassination to death. In this regard, Baybars was forced to hide, and left Syria. After the Mamluks killed Aybek, Baybars returned to Cairo.
The new Sultan (1259-1260) Muzaffar Saif al-Din Kutuz, after receiving Baghdad, Beibars (1258) instructs to lead a campaign against the troops of the Mongol-Turkic dynasty of hulaguids who ruled Iran, seeking to conquer Syria and Egypt. In the battle of Ain Zhalut, Baybars distinguished himself with his courage. Further attacks by the troops to Hulag did not yield results. Envious of the victory of Baybars, Sultan Kutuz made a huge gift to the rulers, and left him without attention. Baybars, by his disagreement with an unfair decision, secretly made an agreement with the rulers, and kills Sultan Kutuz on the way back to Cairo. The rulers declaring Baybars the sultan of Egypt, at the end of 1260 Baybars solemnly entered Cairo. To the official name of Baybars was added the title “Rukn ad-Din” (“Reliance of Religion”). This title was awarded for successful wars against the crusaders [6, p. 105].
Upon coming to power, Beybars directed all efforts to prepare for attacks against the Crusade. Since 1265, one after another, he began to take the fortresses of the sacred. In 1267, they made campaigns against the Lesser Armenian Kingdom, in 1275 against the Asia Minor Seljuks. In the early years of Islam, when Beybars was the ruler of Egypt, Muslim possessions began to revolt with the weakening of the caliphate. The eighth crusade, organized from Europe, began in 1265. Baybars not only stopped this crusade, but also again freed the territory that had previously been conquered. In 1265 he liberated Safad, in 1268 Antioch, in 1271 Khisyn Al-Akkrad, in 1267 Armenian Cilicia. After weakening the influence of the Crusades and the Seljuks, an alliance with the Golden Horde reigned in Iran and Iraq against the Hulagu dynasty, a descendant of Genghis Khan, the ruler of the Ilkhanid state that dominates Iraq.
The Türks and Mongols who conquered Iran before the arrival of Hulagu, initially had close relations with the Juchi ulus. The seized lands were used as a whole as the common property of the Genghis Khan dynasty. Noyons and princes of Jochi took part in the conquest of Iran [8, p.105]. After the conquest of Iran by Hulag, part of the rights remained in Iran, the city to the sons of Jochi. The conflict between Berke and Hulagu was the cause, not the cause of the death of the Caliph and the suppression of the rights of the sons of Jochi. Despite the fact that economic, political, cultural phenomena between Iran and the Golden Horde developed in the same way. The Kypchak steppe in medieval historical works is called Kypshakbashi. In the “Book of Olzhayt” in 1336, an ambassador from the Uzbek Ulus, king Kypshakbashi arrived in the city of Sultaniye [8, p.135]. Esenbuga Ogul sent a message to the Uzbek Ulus that Temirkhan does not correspond to the kingdom of Ulus Jochi, the power of Kypshakbashi is transferred to Mankyda. From this data it is not difficult to observe that active political relations have developed between the Golden Horde and the ilkhan ulus.
After Hulagu took Baghdad and destroyed the state of the Abbasids, and fought with Egypt, they encountered the descendants of Jochi. Its main reason was Azerbaijani pastures, which had Mongolian riders wintering. Before Hulag, this land belonged to the Golden Horde. In addition, Berke demanded that the Caspian winters and cities be transferred for their military assistance to Hulag. In 1262, with the adoption of the ulus of Berke Islam, diplomatic relations began with Egypt and the Golden Horde, exchanged embassies. For Jochi, the Derbent ferry was a trade route. However, after the death of Hulagu, the situation with the Jochi ulus improved again [8, p.138].
In general, there are possible ethnic reasons why Baybars was in solidarity with the Golden Horde. Since the Golden Horde became a state that arose instead of Baybars’ homeland – Deshti-Kipchak. In the land dispute between the Khan of the Golden Horde, Berke and the ruler of the state of Ilkhan, Hulagu, the Mamluks supported Berke. Berke tells his army: “If it is impossible to return the troops to the Golden Horde, then go to Mameluk Egypt.” Between Egypt and the Golden Horde during Beibars until the 15th century. friendships have developed. About fifty ambassadors were visited between Cairo and Sarai for 200 years. Then under Toktamysh recreated alliance between Egypt, Ottomania, the Golden Horde was simultaneously founded by Sultan Beybars. He supported the adoption of Islam by the Golden Horde.
After receiving the degree of the Sultan, Beybars sought to establish diplomatic relations with the Golden Horde ruler Berke. According to Amin al-Holi, during the reign of Sultan Beybars in Deshti-Kipchak, 8 diplomatic ambassadors were visited [1, p. 728]. This union survived until the collapse of the Golden Horde. It would be unfair to associate only with political reasons, when political relations have passed for such a long time. This, ultimately, was the common interest of the Mamluk-Kypchaks, who called Egypt “Kypchak Egypt.” Therefore, even after Baybars, they strive not to interrupt their homeland from Kypchak, called “Altyn Horde”, until they left the Mamluk-Kypchak dynasty.
In Arabic chronicles, Seit Mohammed writes about the participation of the ambassadors of Berke Khan at the Sunni wedding of the son of the Sultan: “The Sultan (Beibars) invited Padishah Berke and his ambassador Yafa, who was a guest in his palace as a witness. They gladly welcomed this invitation and went to the wedding ”[1, p. 735].
He was the Sultan of Egypt and provided great support to immigrants from the Golden Horde. Al-Omari said: “The kings came out of them (the Egyptian sultans came out of the Turkic Mamluks), and also contributed to the multiplication of their relatives, and they comprehensively supported those who came to Egypt. From them came the military leaders of his land (Egypt), biya. [1 , p. 732.] To the Turks who came to Egypt, Beybars gave land plots near the gates of Cairo near the Al-Luk fortress [1, p. 733].
In response to a message from Burke, he sends an official embassy to the Golden Horde, led by Seyfetdin Kusharbek and lawyer Mejeddin. Beibars, together with an official letter, sent “the genealogy of the Sultan, signed by Tazhaddin” [1, p. 736]. Thus, Baybars not only called for their struggle against the “atheists,” but also wanted to restore contact with his Golden Horde relatives.
The Egyptian Mamluks contained specialists who had escaped from Deshti-Kipchak, who knew the Kipchak language as translators. Ignorance of the Egyptian rulers of the Turkic language led them to this action [8, p.140].
Sultan Beybars died in 676 hijri on the 28th day of the month of Muharram (May 2, 1277). He ruled the country for about 17 years. After his death, his son Nasyraddin sat on the throne. However, the children of Baybars could not hold power for a long time. Mamluk rulers who sought power killed his sons and, finally, the next ruler Seyfuddin Kalauin, from the Kipchak clan, came to power. Beybars died July 1, 1277 in the city of Damascus and is buried under the dome of the library of al-Zaharia. His remains were placed at the grave of Bab-ul-Barid in Damascus [10].
During his reign, the country’s socio-economic situation developed. According to contemporaries, the sultan loved horse games, hunting, and competitions. The Sultan is known for its simplicity and religion. They always paid attention to the poor, helped, took care of orphans and took them into their care.
In each city he held a standing army. He strengthened order in the state, and finally stopped the mutual clashes taking place near the Palace. Under the Sultan, the Mamluk state developed. Merchants from all over the world began to come to the Mamluks. Bridges were built over all rivers and one mosque in each city. Canals and dams were repaired [11].
In the domestic politics of the country, Sultan Beybars adhered to a visionary policy. He strengthened the position of the Muslim state, did a lot for prosperity. In the era of Baybars, Egypt turned into a prosperous country. In domestic politics, suppressing internal uprisings and rebellions, firmly cemented the foundation of the country. In the legal field, Sultan Beybars made unprecedented changes.
In the legal field, Sultan Beybars made unprecedented changes. He appointed judges of all four Sunni mazhabs. He restored the Al-Azhar mosque, significantly changed it, and turned it into a large educational institution, where students from different countries came to mosques and madrassas. In Egypt and Damascus, many madrassas were built. In particular, the building of the Zahiri Madrasa in Cairo is well preserved. Libraries with a rich book fund also worked in the madrasah.
In addition to Egypt, overhaul of the Prophet’s mosque in Medina was carried out. Updated mosque of the prophet Ibrahim in Damascus. In Jerusalem, Al-Aqsa Mosques, Kubbat Sahra, were repaired and updated. The House of Justice was built, in which various problems and disputes are solved [10].
Baybars was an active advocate of Islam and Muslims. In 1260, in Cairo, the Abbasid caliphate was restored in a festive atmosphere as a spiritual institution that is far from political power. To put on the throne of the caliph one heir to the Abbasid dynasty, who fled from Baghdad, and turned Cairo into the spiritual capital of the caliphates.
The significance of Baybars in the history of Islam is measured by the fact that he defended the Islamic world from the crusader campaigns. He lived his few lives, protecting the borders of Islam with the Christian world from the crusaders. Against the Mongol conquerors, he was an ally with the Golden Horde Khan, Berke Khan. As a result, Berke Khan converted to Islam and strengthened the bond between Egypt and the Golden Horde. He entered into an alliance against Khulag and his descendants, who conquered the land of Iraq and Iran [11].
Sultan Baybars created a powerful army against Islamic enemies, the navy and equipped with weapons. Baybars built fortresses during his reign, increasing armaments and ships. A regular army has been created. He first introduced artillery at the front. In the battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, fireballs were captured from a cannon against the Mongol army. In the Mamluk army there were iron guns called “midf”, shooting balls, bullet missiles. Later this artillery appeared in Europe, and in 1314 the Spanish king Ferdinand took advantage of this innovation surrounded by Gibraltar. And the British used this technology during the Hundred Years War in 1346 against the French in the battle of Kres [12].
Memory
Currently, in the country the name of Sultan Beibars is assigned to villages, schools, cultural centers. Despite the fact that the Kazakh intelligentsia was informed about Sultan Beibars, another public first learned about a famous ancestor with the help of the television movie Sultan Beibars, created in 1989 by the Soviet film studio Sovexportfilm and the Egyptian studio El Alamiya. The film was shot by director Bulat Mansurov based on the work of Moris Simashko “Emshan”. The main role was played by N.Zhantorin.
In 2007, the country allocated funds for the reconstruction of the Sultan Baybars mausoleum in the Syrian capital in Damascus. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the total cost of the mosque restoration project is $ 12 million. Of these, 4.5 million were allocated under the Government of Kazakhstan. In order to co-finance, Egypt transferred 100 million Egyptian pounds (about $ 5.6 million).
For the EXPO-2017 in the National Museum of the capital of Kazakhstan opened the exhibition “Sultan Beibars and his era.” At the exhibition, 22 exhibits from the collection of the Museum of Islamic Art were presented, telling about the life and power of Sultan Beybars, who led Egypt and Syria.
The head of the Al-Farabi and Sultan Beibars Foundation, S. Iskakov, organized the historical and scientific expedition “Following the Traces of the Ancestors” to the lands under the jurisdiction of Egypt, the Kingdom of Jordan, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Jerusalem, studied historical places, met with local historians.
References:
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