The Mongol Empire is a unique phenomenon in the medieval history. The Mongols succeeded to create a truly world empire. Its founder, Chinggis Khan, conquered half of the world, transforming the entire Eurasian steppe system into a coherent political entity with rigid social and political system, strong military organization and postal and communicational network. This empire, which spread from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe and from Siberia to Persia, established its world-system.
Beyond any doubt, the establishment of an extensive empire was not carried out without bloodshed and tragedies. Many cities were demolished during the reign of Chinggis Khan. Entire peoples were ruthlessly slain and the hearths of many culturs were destroyed. In numerous areas the process of sedentarization was interrupted. The history had witnessed many reminders for that. These were the consequences associated with the Mongol domination.
Despite all the controversies concerning the evaluation of the activities by the Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan, this was certainly a historical event of global importance; therefore, depicting it solely in black or white would not be possible. Being a cold-blooded and prudent politician and a talented commander with extraordinary organizational skills, Chinggis Khan was a person who was much ahead of his time. He intended to foresee events and being an extremely suspicious and ruthless person who could engage everybody to his life, he always tried to accomplish his actions in such a manner that never left enemies behind. Even the idea of national boundedness was alien to him. Chinggis Khan resorted to any ways and means that would serve his ideology of Nirun and Heavenly Descent. Therefore, here we can see the origins of both his victories and failures. As was rightfully mentioned by the German historian Ratchnevsky, who stated that “Chinggis Khan was the product of his own time and his actions were determined by the harsh law of the steppes that never allowed compassion towards enemies.”
The Mongols under the leadership of Chinggis Khan intended to unite under the same umbrella as much force as possible and attain peace, order and confidence in self-survival. For this cause he carried out not only the punitive and destructive warfare, but also economic wars. For instance, many historians associate the launch of the Khorezm campaign of 1219 to the instance of the execution of Mongolian merchants in Otrar in 1218. Doubtless, this event took place, but in our opinion it was not the primary reason of the Mongol aggression towards Central Asia but rather served as an excuse to hasten the campaign. The main reason behind the campaign lay in his aspirations to capture the commercial and economic resources of the region and to attain control over great trade routes connecting Asia with Europe and passing through Central Asia. Therefore, Chinggis Khan obtained control over extensive territories with their populations and wealth. So what was to be done further?! The chief advisor of the Ogeday Khan, Yelu Chu Cai, said the following about this matter: “Oh, my Majesty, my Kagan! Conquering the enemy on one’s saddle is the easiest, to rule over it is the most difficult thing.” Indeed, the Great Kagan would not dare to ignore this wisdom.
Along with the continuation of conquests, he kept conquered territories in perfect order and set well-organized postal and communications system throughout the entire territory of the empire. The judicial regulations of the Great Yasa of Chinggis Khan became the fundamental laws of the entire Eurasian steppe. Thanks to that, the Mongol Empire founded by Chinggis Khan survived for about 140-150 years after his death [until 1368], while, if to count up to the downfall of the Golden Horde, then even 240-250 years. In this respect, the historical role of the Mongol Empire in world history ought to be analyzed in two perspectives:
1. The years of conquest (1204-1277); and
2. The years of governance and reforms on the territory of the empire.
If during the period of the Mongol invasion the people were more concerned about their survival, then throughout the second period the senseless internal warfare was ended, the Ulus borders were consolidated and certain regional and peripheral state structures appeared. Thus, the Mongols introduced the system of governance and bookkeeping.
The second period took place during the reign of the descendants of Chinggis Khan when the imperial system intended to unite the interrupted links between the East and the West. Thus, the West obtained a passage to the East. The Great Silk Road was restored and revived. Trade caravans, envoys and missionaries were coming to the imperial capital, Karakorum, from all around of the world and passed through it both to the East and West.
The trade routes became an important component of the world-system of the Mongol Empire. The great kagans controlled the Great Silk Road, while under their patronage the conditions favourable for the development of cultural and commercial relations were maintained. The barriers between states and civilizations were broken down and a broader passageway for the flow of goods and ideas emerged. The primary conditions for the development of international trade were the introduction of the legal system and maintenance of security. The Great Yasa of Chinggis Khan contains 4 articles on international trade, 2 on financial affairs and 2 directly on trade. The network of caravansarays and postal stations and the transportations between them were provided by state guarding.
‘Аta-Malik Juvaini stated that after 1206 peace and order were kept on the territory of Mongolia, roads became safe and trade operations intensified. The same is affirmed by the Muslim traveller Abu-al-Ghazi, who stated that “under Chinggis Khan the profound peace was set in this country between Iran and Turan [i.e. Turkestan]. You can put gold on you head and travel from the dawn to the evening without experiencing any threat and danger.”
The Florentine merchant Francesco Pegolotti had a similar mention in his treatise Practica della Mercatura [The Practice of Trade] in the early 14th century. While giving a details directives concerning maritime and land travel to the North China via the Don, he mentioned that “this route was safe day and night, peace and order predominated there or Pax Tatarica [The Tatar Peace] set by Tatars [i.e. Mongols.].”
Thanks to the urten or postal system set by the Mongols, the communications between the East and the West intensified and the transportations accelerated. Korean writer Kim Jon Re even compares the Mongol system of communications of the 13th century with the current Internet system. Thus, the Mongols succeeded to create a world-system of free trade and information passageway some 700 years ago.
According to Evgeny Kychanov, the travel from the Golden Horde to Khanbalyk, the capital of the Yuan state, would take more than 200 days by fast ride on urten [postal] horses. According to ‘Abd al-Lukhod, the road to Khanbalyk would take no less than 300 days by a more relaxed ride. The Polo brothers noticed that the Mongol khan was aware of their departure to Orda 40 days in advance and already sent a convoy.
The caravan trade route stretched from Eastern Europe, from the Don and Volga to China and India. Ibn Battuta mentions that “there is an extremely great number of horses in this [Kipchak] land…. These horses are sent to the Indian countries and there are, more r less, six thousand of them in a caravan, so that each merchant has 100 or 200 horses.” According to Juvaini and other sources, on the caravan route between Karakorum and Khanbalyk every day some 500 carts were moving back and forward, each of which had six oxen and full load. The variety of goods shipped both sides was very rich. Along with trade, the cultural exchange between individuals and peoples intensified.
As a result of the economic and cultural exchange not only sedentary and nomadic peoples were engaged into the sphere of influence of the Mongol world-system. Gradually, the cities destroyed during the years of war were being restored and some new ones built. In its well recorded in historiography that during the 14th-15th centuries there were about 200 cities in the Ulus of Juchi [Golden Horde] alone. Certain new economic and cultural centres emerged, namely Karakorum, Khanbalgas, Saray-Batu, Berke-Saray, Crimea, Bulgar, Ukek, Gulistan and Sygynak. These cities, including the ports of the Mongol Yuan state in China and cities of the Golden Horde in the west started competing with Venetian and Genoese trade centres. The Arab traveller Ibn Battuta, Giosafa Barbaro, Florentine Francesco Pegolotti, Venetian Marco Polo and many others described those cities in different times and wondered how the medieval world changed during the Mongol domination over the Eurasian steppes.
Beyond any doubt, the main contribution of the Mongol Empire to world history was the fact that the Mongols enclosed the chains of international trade into a common land and maritime system. For the first time, all major regional components of the medieval world-system (Europe, Islamic world, India, China, Russia, Central Asia and Dasht-i Kipchak within Golden Horde) were integrated into a common economic space, the Mongol world-system. The attractiveness of this system was so great that even after the expulsion of the Mongols from China [1368] and the defeat of the Ulus of Juchi by Timur, the network of the international trade and cultural exchange survived, although the geostrategic balance of power in the Old World changed. In the eastern part of the Islamic world the centre shifted from Baghdad to Tebriz, in Central Asia from Balasagun to Almalyk and later to Turkestan, in Eastern Europe from Kiev to Saray and then to Moscow, and in China from Kaifing to Beijing.
The domination of the Mongol Empire became a bitter school of maturation and self-cognition for the conquered peoples. In the long run, many of them established their own states. The impact and consequences of Mongol rule were felt for centuries even in China, Persia and Russia. The territory of Kazakhstan and its population, which became a significant compound and contributor of the Mongol Empire, became in this respect an important transmitter of its traditions. After the downfall of the Ulus of Juchi, the nomadic population of the Kazakh steppes became its essential successor, especially in geographic sense.